Age (weeks) 3-14. Socialization Period. If socialization later than 14 weeks, (or between 12-14
weeks in some dogs) shyness or aggressiveness may dominate behavior.
Age (weeks) 6-8. Optimum Socialization. If socialization earlier, shyness often develops, alone with
over-dependence on owner, which may lead to over protectiveness.
Age (weeks) 8-10. Fear Imprint. Traumatic, fear producing experiences may bee permanently
impressed causing defensive reactions in some circumstances.
Age (weeks) 12-14. Puberty Onset. Meaningful sexual mounting often occurs. Males display
erections.
Age (weeks) 18-40. Protective-Aggressive. Barking at strangers and other territorial and social
group protective tendencies may occur. Leg lifting may begin in males.
Age (weeks) 35-56. Functional. Many dogs become more serious about protective-aggressive
behavior. A general persistence in behavior problems is noted and corrections become more difficult.
Age (weeks) 104-208. Achievement. Protective -aggressive behavior can become especially
purposeful. Problem behavior appears to become self rewarding, habitual. Corrections markedly
more difficult.
________________________________________________________________________
Critical Stages of Canine Development
The notion of critical stages of canine development has been well covered in both scientific and
popular literature and is based primarily on the work of John Scott and J.L. Fuller in the forties,
fifties, and sixties. Clarence Pfaffenberger’s book NEW KNOWLEDGE O DOG BEHAVIOR
introduced these stages of development to breeders, trainers, and pet owners over 20 years ago. Jack
and Wendy Vollhard and Richard Wolters further popularized this field by introducing puppy
aptitude testing based, in part, on Scott and Fuller’s findings. Drs Michael Fox and Iam Dunbar,
initially studying canine development and behavior in clinical settings, have written copiously for
the lay press regarding puppy socialization.
Unfortunately, many other writers unfamiliar with the original research have led new puppy owners
into believing that a puppy purchased an age older than exactly 7 weeks will bond less well and be
less trainable than a puppy purchased at exactly 49 days of life.
This “urban myth” is most vexing to breeders as the 49th day of life may be the earliest time a
puppy may leave its litter mates, but may not be the best time. So here to debunk some of these
myths is a synopsis is the critical periods of puppy development from a breeders point of view:
FIRST PERIOD–BIRTH-21 DAYS
A. Neonatal sub period 0-13 days
Characters: Puppies are “fetuses out of the womb.” They can not see, hear, regulate their own body
temperature, or climate without stimulation and are totally dependant upon their dam or segregate
mother.
No emotional development, social attachment, or learning takes place during this period. Puppies
brain waves remain constant whether sleeping or awake. Puppies do, however, exhibit reflex
reactions to hunger, cold, touch. They pile for warmth or spread out if too hot but cannot regulate
their own temperature by shivering or panting.
During this neonatal period puppies will crawl backward and forward and will swing their heads
from side to side, often repetitively while mewing or trilling. These movements appear to be
involuntary and prepare pups muscles, nervous system, and inner ear for further development.
Breeder Do’s: Keep bitch happy, healthy and well-fed. Her physical and emotional well being will
supply everything the puppies need during this stage.
Handle puppies very gently with very slow massaging movements. Very light stimulation of the
nervous system (“called pre-stressing”) may be beneficial when applied during the second week of
life. This could involve rotating the pups gently in your hands, applying light pressure to the ear
leather, and holding each pup gently on its back for a few seconds each day. Pups should, of course,
be weighed daily to monitor growth and this would be a good time to handle each pup. THIS IS NOT
SOCIALIZATION OR TRAINING. Pre-stress does, however, assist in developing brain cells.
Breeder Dont's: Don’t allow visitors (human or canine) during this period. Avoid anything that will
stress the bitch (house guest, parties, home repairs, etc...) Also try not to move puppies or remove
mother from the litter at this time. If the pups or dam need to see a veterinarian try to arrange for a
home visit. Despite the common practice, this is not a good age to take a litter to a dog show in you
van, tailor or motor home.
B. Transition Sub Period 13-21 days.
Characteristics; Eyes and ears open and pups slowly begin responding to light, movement and
sound. Puppies become more mobile as they gain awareness of their surroundings, their mother,
litter mates, and objects. Pups may also begin to alert to human presence during this period. This is
still a reaction to stimuli rather than a social bond or emotional attachment.
Pups will attempt to get up on their feet, but continue crawling backward and forward. They may
begin trying to get out of whelping box toward the end of this period.
Breeder Do’s: Introduce toys as obstacles to climb over or bump into. This helps pups develop
spatial awareness. Some pups may begin briefly interacting with toys near the end of the third week.
Continue handling pups daily using slow, massaging movements. Pups are growing fast and need
frequent nail trimming. Introducing brushing with soft brush. Again, this is not training but
stimulation.
Breeder Dont's: Avoid startling pup with loud noises or sudden movements while hearing and
eyesight are developing. If you must move or change puppies environment, this is the time to do so.
Do not remove dam.
SECOND PERIOD 21-28 DAYS
Characteristics; Most important period with rapid sensory development. Puppies are fully alert to
their environment and will startle easily at sudden sounds and movements. During this time they are
able to recognize their breeder and other significant humans by smell, sight and sound. However,
they have lost the natural insulation of the neonatal period and negative events can easily imprint
basic behavior during this period.
Social bonding begins to occur during this week.
Neonatal behaviors such as head swinging, mewing and crawling back and forth stop. Pups are more
active and moving well on their feet. This is a time of rapid physical change. There are also
significant changes in brain waves during this period and pups are now able to learn from experience
and to retain what they have learned.
Breeders Do’s: Introduce new tactile sensations in puppies box pups enjoy borrowing in shredded
newspaper, for example, or crawling over a rolled towel or blanket. Continue daily handling, adding
new sounds and sights to the environment radio, TV, telephone, computer and printer. Introduce
toys and make sounds. Pups can be removed from the box and placed on new surfaces. Do this with
two pups at a time rather than separating from litter.
Breeder Dont's: AVOID LOUD NOISES OR SUDDEN CHANGES DURING THIS PERIOD.
Negative events can permanently imprint on the pups during this week. Do not run vacuum cleaner
around pups, blow hair dryers, run clippers etc. Postpone having work done on your home and ask
prospective purchasers or curious friends to wait to the end of the 4th week to visit puppies.
Do not move puppies or separate from dam during this week.
THIRD PERIOD 21-49 DAYS
Characteristics: Social awareness, learning to become dogs (note: first week of this critical stage of
develops overlaps with second period of development). Play fighting behavior becomes increasingly
intense. Pups are developing problem solving abilities, physical coordination, bit inhibition. Mother
begins weaning pups during this period, those beginning to initiate discipline. During this time
puppies will begin to move to the far corners of their bed, box or pen to urinate and defecate.
House breaking can begin!
Breeder Do’s: During entire period leave pups together as litter and allow dam free access to pups.
During 4th week (21-28 days) introduce food to pups without removing the dam. You can feed her
in the litter box at the same time. Begin escalating sensory experience (see notes on critical period).
Continue daily handling by breeder and family members.
During 5th week (28-35 days) Introduce pups to the outdoors. Take them outside to urinate and
defecate after drinking or eating. When this is not possible provide pups with a designed bathroom
spot to begin the housebreaking.
Begin handling pups individually away from litter mates and dam for at least 10 minutes each day.
Enlist the help of family members, friends, neighbors and prospective puppy owner in this process.
If you cannot handle 10 minutes each day, do 5 minutes. Daily experiences away from litter mates
are crucial.
During the 6th and 7th weeks (35-49 days) Increase sensory experiences with brief car rides.
Introduce pups to vacuum cleaner. Puppies can begin simple training routines using food lures and
social attraction at this time. Start teaching pups to stand on grooming table to be examines or to be
brushed.
This is the prime socialization periods. Introduce new people, especially children. Pups enjoy
interaction with a gentle adult dog kindly auntie or uncle who will baby-sit with patience.
Introducing situations that will stimulate problem solving behavior- - tunnels, cardboard boxes,
gates. steps, fences, logs, etc. Allow pups to have successes and reinforce these successes wit food.
Breeder Dont's: DO NOT REMOVE PUPPIES FROM LITTER DURING THIS PERIOD!! Do not
completely remove mother. Do not correct for play fighting, housebreaking errors, or mouthing.
FORTH PERIOD 49 DAYS TO 12 WEEKS
Characteristics: Enlarging social awareness and bonding outside of litter. Mental abilities are fully
formed but pups lack experience. This is the optimum time to teach new things and is, in fact, the
period of fastest learning. Research has shown that behaviors can be shaped and modified most
easily during times when learning is occurring most quickly. Training during this time will actually
increase the capacity to learn by increasing brain cells in the appropriate regions of the brain.
Bladder and bowel control developed and pups are capable of sleeping through the night without
accidents.
Breeder Do’s: Greatly enlarge the puppies world between 49 and 56 days. Begin puppy rotation,
playing and sleeping in smaller groups. Pups that remain with breeder cam be created with one or
two other pups. Be sure to switch puppies around.
Continue individual grooming, play and training sessions with each pup. Gentle but firm discipline
from humans may be begun. Begin teaching response to simple commands such as sit, down, stand,
come, walk on lead at this time. Pups during this period can learn complex behavior chain and can
make associations.
Breeder Dont's: Do not isolate from humans or unnecessarily restrain during this period (only
restraints should be crate or necessary fencing). Avoid inadvertently reinforcing fearful responses.
NOTE: FIRST FEAR IMPRINT PERIOD OCCURS BETWEEN 8-10 WEEKS, AVOID
PLACING PUPS DURING THIS TIME. AVOID SHIPPING PUPS, EAR CROPPING OR
ANY TRAUMATIC EXPERIENCES.
Pups that have been properly socialized and bonded with breeder can be successfully placed at 10-
12 weeks after they have passed the fear imprint period and while they are still young enough to be
“ babies”.
FIFTH PERIOD 3-4 MONTHS
Characteristics: Dominance period where pup solidifies position. Pups will begin testing their place
in the world during this time. They tend to become emboldened. This is a period of very fast
physical growth.
Breeder/Owner Do’s: Pups must be treated as individual dogs. If they are still with the breeder they
should no longer be treated as part of a litter and should sleep alone in individual crates at night and
all training and grooming sessions should be individual.
Introduce behavioral dominance exercises, “Alphabetize” yourself and your family - feed pup after
you eat, move crate to different locations so pup doesn't’t become site protective, take food and
toys away while pup is eating or playing.
Continue socialization and obedience training providing slight distractions. TEACH THE RECALL
AND PRACTICE IT SEVERAL TIMES EVERY SINGLE DAY!!!! Do this before pup enters the
“flight period” at about age of 16 weeks.
Breeder/Owner Dont's: No tug of war games. Do not allow pup to sleep in bed with humans.
Absolutely forbid all chasing games with children.
VERY, VERY IMPORTANT NOTE: DO NOT RAISE LITTER MATES OR TWO UNRELATED
PUPPIES TOGETHER DURING THIS PERIOD!!!
SIXTH PERIOD 4-6 MONTHS
Characteristics: The flight period, corresponding to teething. Pups begin testing limits. May attempt
to assert dominance over human pack members (especially children). May “forget” housebreaking.
This period is characterized by independence and willfulness. Owner or breeder is no longer
Mommy substitute.
Breeder/ Owner Do’s: Keep pup on lead when outside fenced enclosures. Continue recall training
and response to commands. Continue dominance exercises and handling all parts of pups body.
Breeder/ Owner Don’ts: Do not let pup off lead if at all possible. Do not chase pup or play chasing
games.
SECOND FEAR IMPRINT PERIOD 6-14 MONTHS
Characteristics: Sexual maturity, hormonal changes. Fearfulness of new situations, objects, people,
other dogs. Male doge begin lifting legs.
Some individuals will pass through this periods faster than others, often with no noticeable problems.
Others may display marked changes in behavior in strange situations.
Reinforce the behaviors you want: do not reinforce fearfulness by coddling to protective behavior.
But also try to avoid punishing fearfulness. Try to adopt a firm but patient and kindly attitude to the
pup’s fearful behavior. Continue socialization to humans and other dogs. Avoid or postpone
extremely stressful or traumatic experience for the animals that appear to be in the fear imprint
period.
NOTE: This primer on critical stages of development is an attempt to consolidate information
appearing in a variety of publications from a number of authors, and to tailor that information
specifically to the needs of breeders.
Remember that consistency and PRAISE are the key words here.
Thank you Carol for sharing in your knowledge and helping us to understand the different stages in
a puppies brain development.
weeks in some dogs) shyness or aggressiveness may dominate behavior.
Age (weeks) 6-8. Optimum Socialization. If socialization earlier, shyness often develops, alone with
over-dependence on owner, which may lead to over protectiveness.
Age (weeks) 8-10. Fear Imprint. Traumatic, fear producing experiences may bee permanently
impressed causing defensive reactions in some circumstances.
Age (weeks) 12-14. Puberty Onset. Meaningful sexual mounting often occurs. Males display
erections.
Age (weeks) 18-40. Protective-Aggressive. Barking at strangers and other territorial and social
group protective tendencies may occur. Leg lifting may begin in males.
Age (weeks) 35-56. Functional. Many dogs become more serious about protective-aggressive
behavior. A general persistence in behavior problems is noted and corrections become more difficult.
Age (weeks) 104-208. Achievement. Protective -aggressive behavior can become especially
purposeful. Problem behavior appears to become self rewarding, habitual. Corrections markedly
more difficult.
________________________________________________________________________
Critical Stages of Canine Development
The notion of critical stages of canine development has been well covered in both scientific and
popular literature and is based primarily on the work of John Scott and J.L. Fuller in the forties,
fifties, and sixties. Clarence Pfaffenberger’s book NEW KNOWLEDGE O DOG BEHAVIOR
introduced these stages of development to breeders, trainers, and pet owners over 20 years ago. Jack
and Wendy Vollhard and Richard Wolters further popularized this field by introducing puppy
aptitude testing based, in part, on Scott and Fuller’s findings. Drs Michael Fox and Iam Dunbar,
initially studying canine development and behavior in clinical settings, have written copiously for
the lay press regarding puppy socialization.
Unfortunately, many other writers unfamiliar with the original research have led new puppy owners
into believing that a puppy purchased an age older than exactly 7 weeks will bond less well and be
less trainable than a puppy purchased at exactly 49 days of life.
This “urban myth” is most vexing to breeders as the 49th day of life may be the earliest time a
puppy may leave its litter mates, but may not be the best time. So here to debunk some of these
myths is a synopsis is the critical periods of puppy development from a breeders point of view:
FIRST PERIOD–BIRTH-21 DAYS
A. Neonatal sub period 0-13 days
Characters: Puppies are “fetuses out of the womb.” They can not see, hear, regulate their own body
temperature, or climate without stimulation and are totally dependant upon their dam or segregate
mother.
No emotional development, social attachment, or learning takes place during this period. Puppies
brain waves remain constant whether sleeping or awake. Puppies do, however, exhibit reflex
reactions to hunger, cold, touch. They pile for warmth or spread out if too hot but cannot regulate
their own temperature by shivering or panting.
During this neonatal period puppies will crawl backward and forward and will swing their heads
from side to side, often repetitively while mewing or trilling. These movements appear to be
involuntary and prepare pups muscles, nervous system, and inner ear for further development.
Breeder Do’s: Keep bitch happy, healthy and well-fed. Her physical and emotional well being will
supply everything the puppies need during this stage.
Handle puppies very gently with very slow massaging movements. Very light stimulation of the
nervous system (“called pre-stressing”) may be beneficial when applied during the second week of
life. This could involve rotating the pups gently in your hands, applying light pressure to the ear
leather, and holding each pup gently on its back for a few seconds each day. Pups should, of course,
be weighed daily to monitor growth and this would be a good time to handle each pup. THIS IS NOT
SOCIALIZATION OR TRAINING. Pre-stress does, however, assist in developing brain cells.
Breeder Dont's: Don’t allow visitors (human or canine) during this period. Avoid anything that will
stress the bitch (house guest, parties, home repairs, etc...) Also try not to move puppies or remove
mother from the litter at this time. If the pups or dam need to see a veterinarian try to arrange for a
home visit. Despite the common practice, this is not a good age to take a litter to a dog show in you
van, tailor or motor home.
B. Transition Sub Period 13-21 days.
Characteristics; Eyes and ears open and pups slowly begin responding to light, movement and
sound. Puppies become more mobile as they gain awareness of their surroundings, their mother,
litter mates, and objects. Pups may also begin to alert to human presence during this period. This is
still a reaction to stimuli rather than a social bond or emotional attachment.
Pups will attempt to get up on their feet, but continue crawling backward and forward. They may
begin trying to get out of whelping box toward the end of this period.
Breeder Do’s: Introduce toys as obstacles to climb over or bump into. This helps pups develop
spatial awareness. Some pups may begin briefly interacting with toys near the end of the third week.
Continue handling pups daily using slow, massaging movements. Pups are growing fast and need
frequent nail trimming. Introducing brushing with soft brush. Again, this is not training but
stimulation.
Breeder Dont's: Avoid startling pup with loud noises or sudden movements while hearing and
eyesight are developing. If you must move or change puppies environment, this is the time to do so.
Do not remove dam.
SECOND PERIOD 21-28 DAYS
Characteristics; Most important period with rapid sensory development. Puppies are fully alert to
their environment and will startle easily at sudden sounds and movements. During this time they are
able to recognize their breeder and other significant humans by smell, sight and sound. However,
they have lost the natural insulation of the neonatal period and negative events can easily imprint
basic behavior during this period.
Social bonding begins to occur during this week.
Neonatal behaviors such as head swinging, mewing and crawling back and forth stop. Pups are more
active and moving well on their feet. This is a time of rapid physical change. There are also
significant changes in brain waves during this period and pups are now able to learn from experience
and to retain what they have learned.
Breeders Do’s: Introduce new tactile sensations in puppies box pups enjoy borrowing in shredded
newspaper, for example, or crawling over a rolled towel or blanket. Continue daily handling, adding
new sounds and sights to the environment radio, TV, telephone, computer and printer. Introduce
toys and make sounds. Pups can be removed from the box and placed on new surfaces. Do this with
two pups at a time rather than separating from litter.
Breeder Dont's: AVOID LOUD NOISES OR SUDDEN CHANGES DURING THIS PERIOD.
Negative events can permanently imprint on the pups during this week. Do not run vacuum cleaner
around pups, blow hair dryers, run clippers etc. Postpone having work done on your home and ask
prospective purchasers or curious friends to wait to the end of the 4th week to visit puppies.
Do not move puppies or separate from dam during this week.
THIRD PERIOD 21-49 DAYS
Characteristics: Social awareness, learning to become dogs (note: first week of this critical stage of
develops overlaps with second period of development). Play fighting behavior becomes increasingly
intense. Pups are developing problem solving abilities, physical coordination, bit inhibition. Mother
begins weaning pups during this period, those beginning to initiate discipline. During this time
puppies will begin to move to the far corners of their bed, box or pen to urinate and defecate.
House breaking can begin!
Breeder Do’s: During entire period leave pups together as litter and allow dam free access to pups.
During 4th week (21-28 days) introduce food to pups without removing the dam. You can feed her
in the litter box at the same time. Begin escalating sensory experience (see notes on critical period).
Continue daily handling by breeder and family members.
During 5th week (28-35 days) Introduce pups to the outdoors. Take them outside to urinate and
defecate after drinking or eating. When this is not possible provide pups with a designed bathroom
spot to begin the housebreaking.
Begin handling pups individually away from litter mates and dam for at least 10 minutes each day.
Enlist the help of family members, friends, neighbors and prospective puppy owner in this process.
If you cannot handle 10 minutes each day, do 5 minutes. Daily experiences away from litter mates
are crucial.
During the 6th and 7th weeks (35-49 days) Increase sensory experiences with brief car rides.
Introduce pups to vacuum cleaner. Puppies can begin simple training routines using food lures and
social attraction at this time. Start teaching pups to stand on grooming table to be examines or to be
brushed.
This is the prime socialization periods. Introduce new people, especially children. Pups enjoy
interaction with a gentle adult dog kindly auntie or uncle who will baby-sit with patience.
Introducing situations that will stimulate problem solving behavior- - tunnels, cardboard boxes,
gates. steps, fences, logs, etc. Allow pups to have successes and reinforce these successes wit food.
Breeder Dont's: DO NOT REMOVE PUPPIES FROM LITTER DURING THIS PERIOD!! Do not
completely remove mother. Do not correct for play fighting, housebreaking errors, or mouthing.
FORTH PERIOD 49 DAYS TO 12 WEEKS
Characteristics: Enlarging social awareness and bonding outside of litter. Mental abilities are fully
formed but pups lack experience. This is the optimum time to teach new things and is, in fact, the
period of fastest learning. Research has shown that behaviors can be shaped and modified most
easily during times when learning is occurring most quickly. Training during this time will actually
increase the capacity to learn by increasing brain cells in the appropriate regions of the brain.
Bladder and bowel control developed and pups are capable of sleeping through the night without
accidents.
Breeder Do’s: Greatly enlarge the puppies world between 49 and 56 days. Begin puppy rotation,
playing and sleeping in smaller groups. Pups that remain with breeder cam be created with one or
two other pups. Be sure to switch puppies around.
Continue individual grooming, play and training sessions with each pup. Gentle but firm discipline
from humans may be begun. Begin teaching response to simple commands such as sit, down, stand,
come, walk on lead at this time. Pups during this period can learn complex behavior chain and can
make associations.
Breeder Dont's: Do not isolate from humans or unnecessarily restrain during this period (only
restraints should be crate or necessary fencing). Avoid inadvertently reinforcing fearful responses.
NOTE: FIRST FEAR IMPRINT PERIOD OCCURS BETWEEN 8-10 WEEKS, AVOID
PLACING PUPS DURING THIS TIME. AVOID SHIPPING PUPS, EAR CROPPING OR
ANY TRAUMATIC EXPERIENCES.
Pups that have been properly socialized and bonded with breeder can be successfully placed at 10-
12 weeks after they have passed the fear imprint period and while they are still young enough to be
“ babies”.
FIFTH PERIOD 3-4 MONTHS
Characteristics: Dominance period where pup solidifies position. Pups will begin testing their place
in the world during this time. They tend to become emboldened. This is a period of very fast
physical growth.
Breeder/Owner Do’s: Pups must be treated as individual dogs. If they are still with the breeder they
should no longer be treated as part of a litter and should sleep alone in individual crates at night and
all training and grooming sessions should be individual.
Introduce behavioral dominance exercises, “Alphabetize” yourself and your family - feed pup after
you eat, move crate to different locations so pup doesn't’t become site protective, take food and
toys away while pup is eating or playing.
Continue socialization and obedience training providing slight distractions. TEACH THE RECALL
AND PRACTICE IT SEVERAL TIMES EVERY SINGLE DAY!!!! Do this before pup enters the
“flight period” at about age of 16 weeks.
Breeder/Owner Dont's: No tug of war games. Do not allow pup to sleep in bed with humans.
Absolutely forbid all chasing games with children.
VERY, VERY IMPORTANT NOTE: DO NOT RAISE LITTER MATES OR TWO UNRELATED
PUPPIES TOGETHER DURING THIS PERIOD!!!
SIXTH PERIOD 4-6 MONTHS
Characteristics: The flight period, corresponding to teething. Pups begin testing limits. May attempt
to assert dominance over human pack members (especially children). May “forget” housebreaking.
This period is characterized by independence and willfulness. Owner or breeder is no longer
Mommy substitute.
Breeder/ Owner Do’s: Keep pup on lead when outside fenced enclosures. Continue recall training
and response to commands. Continue dominance exercises and handling all parts of pups body.
Breeder/ Owner Don’ts: Do not let pup off lead if at all possible. Do not chase pup or play chasing
games.
SECOND FEAR IMPRINT PERIOD 6-14 MONTHS
Characteristics: Sexual maturity, hormonal changes. Fearfulness of new situations, objects, people,
other dogs. Male doge begin lifting legs.
Some individuals will pass through this periods faster than others, often with no noticeable problems.
Others may display marked changes in behavior in strange situations.
Reinforce the behaviors you want: do not reinforce fearfulness by coddling to protective behavior.
But also try to avoid punishing fearfulness. Try to adopt a firm but patient and kindly attitude to the
pup’s fearful behavior. Continue socialization to humans and other dogs. Avoid or postpone
extremely stressful or traumatic experience for the animals that appear to be in the fear imprint
period.
NOTE: This primer on critical stages of development is an attempt to consolidate information
appearing in a variety of publications from a number of authors, and to tailor that information
specifically to the needs of breeders.
Remember that consistency and PRAISE are the key words here.
Thank you Carol for sharing in your knowledge and helping us to understand the different stages in
a puppies brain development.
| Different Stages of Development in Puppies This article was written by Carol Kufner. We wanted to share it with you with hopes that it will help you to understand the different stages of development in a puppy from the age of birth to 14 months. |
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